Following the 30-min habituation period involved in completing these measures, participants provided a baseline saliva sample (for cortisol determination) and were randomly assigned to either the stressor or control condition. Front. 57, 55–64. Zaehringer, J., Falquez, R., Schubert, A. L., Nees, F., and Barnow, S. (2018). The questionnaire measures 2 aspects of cognitive flexibility: – the ability to perceive and generate many alternative solutions – the Alternatives subscale, – a tendency to perceive difficult situations as controlla-ble – the Control subscale [22]. The TSST challenge was appraised as being more stressful (main effect of condition: b = 3.16, SE = 0.93, p = 0.001) relative to reading a magazine in the control condition. 3, 212–216. Psychol. Models were compared using chi-square difference tests (Δχ2) with appropriate re-scaling. 24, 699–711. Items were further eliminated based on low inter-item correlations (r < 0.20), redundancy (r > 0.80), confusing or ambiguous wording, or respondents’ interpretations of the item did not fully represent the current conceptualization of cognitive control or of cognitive flexibility. The stressed prefrontal cortex and goal-directed behaviour: acute psychosocial stress impairs the flexible implementation of task goals. Results: There is a statistically significant relationship between flexibility in coping with stress and its dimensions, and cognitive flexibility and its dimensions, in the examined group of firefighters. Partial correlations between the CCFQ and depressive symptoms after controlling for validation measures of cognitive control and cognitive (in)flexibility. However, these findings are consistent with previous reports indicating that trait rumination, which has been associated with diminished cognitive control over emotion (Koster et al., 2011), predicted delayed cortisol recovery following an acute psychosocial stressor (Zoccola et al., 2010; Stewart et al., 2013). doi: 10.1007/s10548-017-0607-6, Downes, J. J., Roberts, A. C., Sahakian, B. J., Evenden, J. L., Morris, R. G., and Robbins, T. W. (1989). Indeed, this raises the possibility that both measures can be used to assess the same processes and administered in the same or similar contexts. Emot. Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., and Erbaugh, J. The measures comprised the REI, the MADS, and the EoE. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2014.04.005, Joormann, J., and Gotlib, I. H. (2010). The higher the number, the greater psychological inflexibility (minimum score is 7; highest score is 49). Dif. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2013.05.004, Malooly, A. M., Genet, J. J., and Siemer, M. (2013). J. Cogn. Likewise, it appears that fundamental cognitive control processes, such as inhibition, play an important role in emotional regulation, where disturbances of cognitive control favor repetitive negative thinking and rumination (Joormann et al., 2007; Koster et al., 2011). Impact of gender, menstrual cycle phase, and oral contraceptives on the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Cortisol reactivity and emotional memory after psychosocial stress in oral contraceptive users. As shown in Table 3, the cognitive control over emotion component of the CCFQ remained strongly associated with cognitive reappraisal, perseverative thinking, and rumination, and the appraisal and coping flexibility component was still highly related to coping versatility. The Relationship Between Cognitive Flexibility, Coping, and Symptomatology in Psychotherapy Benjamin Todd Johnson ... (Acceptance and Action Questionnaire [AAQ], Hayes et al., 2004). Individual differences in reappraisal effectiveness: the role of affective flexibility. Promax-rotated, Principal Components Analysis of the CCFQ in a student and community sample. Sci. Sci. Understanding depressive rumination from a cognitive science perspective: the impaired disengagement hypothesis. Perceptions of threat and uncontrollability, in turn, partially accounted for the association between CCFQ subscale scores and depressive symptoms. This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, Grant 9180. 29, 14–24. Ratings were on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a great amount). TABLE 3. Child. (2017). A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.08.007, Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., and Heim, C. (2009). Weight Disord. Impaired extra-dimensional shift performance in medicated and unmedicated Parkinson’s disease: evidence for a specific attentional dysfunction. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131305, Grant, D. A., and Berg, E. A. Reliability was demonstrated by a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.918. In fact, this likely explains why the appraisal and coping flexibility dimension of the CCFQ was more strongly correlated with the reappraisal subscale of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Soc. By example, the value of a particular behavioral measure, such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), might provide an index of flexibility that is limited to certain cognitive domains or situations. Neurosci. The internal reliabilities for the versatility and reflective coping subscales were 0.80 and 0.56, respectively. Whereas the alternatives facet of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory more directly measures the tendency to generate multiple explanations for difficult situations, the appraisal and coping flexibility dimension of the CCFQ assesses the use of reappraisals aimed at regulating negative thoughts and emotions, and difficulties in doing so. The PANAS-X: Manual for the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form. Furthermore, diminished cognitive control over emotion was linked to elevated and prolonged cortisol reactivity following an acute challenge, a neuroendocrine profile that has been associated with depressive illness (Juruena et al., 2017). *Correspondence: Robert L. Gabrys, robert.gabrys@carleton.ca, Front. Psychol. Cognitive change and symptom change in cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy for depression. Standardized factor loadings from the ESEM analysis of the CCFQ. Moderation analyses were conducted using the PROCESS v3.0 script to SPSS provided by Hayes (2017). A., and Buhle, J. T. (2012). Brain Topogr. However, it might be the propensity for individuals who display difficulties of cognitive control and flexibility to specifically appraise stressor as threatening and uncontrollable that promotes sustained negative affect. Results without this procedure are presented in Supplementary Material (Supplementary Analyses: Study 3). Being a relatively brief (20-item) questionnaire, it understandably does not capture all instances of cognitive flexibility (or of cognitive control) that may be important to stressful situations. Beta-adrenergic modulation of cognitive flexibility during stress. Cognitive control, and the processes underlying this ability (executive functions) have also been implicated in self- and emotional-regulation, as well as mental health outcomes (Gotlib and Joormann, 2010; Hofmann et al., 2012). (2007). doi: 10.1080/00221309.2017.1421137, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., and Alloy, L. B. J. 1251, E1–E24. The present study describes the development of the CCFQ as well as the factor structure and reliability of this measure in both a student and a community sample. FIGURE 2. RG was solely responsible for data acquisition. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2017.09.052, Kirschbaum, C., Kudielka, B. M., Gaab, J., Schommer, N. C., and Hellhammer, D. H. (1999). As assessed by the CCFQ, reduced cognitive control over emotion was associated with increased repetitive thinking and rumination, elevated negative affect following a stressful situation, and ultimately heightened symptoms of depression. Prior to these analyses, an Exploratory Structural Equation Model (ESEM) was used to confirm the two-factor structure of the CCFQ and to test alternative models. Dennis, J. P., and Vander Wal, J. S. (2010). Clin. Although varying in task specificity, these behavioral paradigms assess the efficiency (or inefficiency) in shifting attention between relevant and irrelevant information. Saliva samples were frozen at -80°C until assayed for cortisol levels. 34, 241–253. Lesion mapping of cognitive control and value-based decision making in the prefrontal cortex. TABLE 2. (2000). Although it can be argued that the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ; Ehring et al., 2011) and the Ruminative Response Scale (RRS; Treynor et al., 2003) measure products of reduced cognitive control, these questionnaires were not designed to be specific to stressor contexts. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2012.01.006, Hou, Z., Sui, Y., Song, X., and Yuan, Y. Thus, although all three measures assess aspects of ‘coping effectiveness,’ each measure taps into distinct factors. Scores for each subscale were computed by first reversing item scores where relevant, and then summing the appropriate items for each subscale. doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(89)90128-0, Ehring, T., Zetsche, U., Weidacker, K., Wahl, K., Schönfeld, S., and Ehlers, A. Indeed, this was expected given that diminished cognitive control (and cognitive flexibility) is characterized by perseverative responding. B., Levy, R., LeBastard, G., Lehéricy, S., et al. The prefontral cortex and cognitive control. Self-reported ethnicity included Caucasian (70.9%, n = 261), Asian (6.8%, n = 25), Black (6.0%, n = 22), Arab (5.2%, n = 19), South Asian (4.1%, n = 15), Hispanic (2.2%, n = 8), South East Asian (1.6%, n = 6), Aboriginal (0.3%, n = 1), and other (e.g., mixed ethnicity, 3.0%, n = 11). doi: 10.1002/smi.2460060308, Perpiñá, C., Segura, M., and Sánchez-Reales, S. (2017). However, being a self-report measure, the CCFQ was not designed to assess ‘hot’ executive functions per se, but instead focused on an individual’s perceived levels of cognitive functioning and the implications for emotional regulation and coping effectiveness. doi: 10.1162/NETN_a_00010. Neuropsychol. Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. The CCFQ was introduced as follows: “The purpose of this questionnaire is to determine what you generally think/feel/do when stressful situations provoke negative thoughts and emotions. Coping flexibility and psychological adjustment to stressful life changes: a meta-analytic review. Cognitive flexibility and decision-making in eating disorders and obesity. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.014, Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., and Cohen, J. D. (2001). Click Here: What permission is there: 3 Application Required: Further Notes: Previous copyright holders Ammons Scientific have been acquired by Sage Journals. Although cognitive control over emotion was associated with several appraisal dimensions, only uncontrollability uniquely mediated the relation between cognitive control over emotions and depressive symptoms (Table 7). The negative affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Version (PANAS-X; Watson and Clark, 1999) was used to assess the intensity of state negative mood immediately post-TSST. The research tools included structural clinical interview (DSM SCID), self-compassion scales questionnaire, cognitive flexibility inventory questionnaire, and marital compatibility test questionnaire, which were completed by the participants. The CCFQ was modeled after conventional behavioral measures of cognitive control and cognitive flexibility and assesses an individual’s perceived ability to exhibit control over their thoughts and behavior in a stressful situation. Participants were also told they were being videotaped during the TSST. Behav. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2017.1296935, Okon-Singer, H., Hendler, T., Pessoa, L., and Shackman, A. J. This study was restricted to females because of their elevated propensity to depression relative to that seen in males. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06751.x, O’Donnell, L. A., Deldin, P. J., Pester, B., McInnis, M. G., Langenecker, S. A., and Ryan, K. A. Salivary cortisol responses to a psychosocial laboratory stressor and later verbal recall of the stressor: the role of trait and state rumination. Neuropsychobiology 28, 76–81. We propose that cognitive control and flexibility can be manifested through several core processes, which span attention, appraisals/reappraisals, and the endorsement of certain coping strategies. (2006). Soc. Stress 6, 223–234. Rev. Psychol. As shown in Table 6, individuals who reported greater levels of cognitive control and flexibility on the CCFQ tended to appraise a personally meaningful academic challenge more positively. The CCFQ in Relation to Stressor Appraisals and Coping Style, Study 3. Psychol. Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Ther. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.06.013, Peacock, E. J., and Wong, P. T. (1990). Johnco, C., Wuthrich, V. M., and Rapee, R. M. (2014). Moderating effect of cognitive control over emotion in the relation between stressor condition and negative affect. Rev. Neurosci. Acad. Top. Once consent had been granted, participants completed the shortened (18-item) CCFQ in addition to several related questionnaires. Stress Health 6, 227–236. 18, 176–186. 1, 293–319. Biochem. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.005, Koster, E. H., Hoorelbeke, K., Onraedt, T., Owens, M., and Derakshan, N. (2017). Once again, given the cross-sectional nature of the present data, these findings should not be interpreted as suggesting causality. Neurosci. The only notable decrease in the correlation between the CCFQ and depressive symptoms appeared to occur when controlling for perseverative thinking and rumination. The cognitive control over emotion component was more closely related to the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire and the Ruminative Response Scale, whereas as the appraisal and coping flexibility dimension exhibited a stronger association with the Coping Flexibility Questionnaire. The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire The scoring of the 36-item CERQ questionnaire is again straightforward. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the cognitive assessment of prefrontal executive functions: a critical update. Emotion modulates cognitive flexibility in patients with major depression. The ob-tained data were analyzed using Pearson correlation test and multivariate regression analysis. J. Gen. Psychol. 3.2.3. Given the limited capacity of working memory, the ability to focus on relevant information, ignore that which is non-essential, and to flexibly shift attention between multiple sources of information likely serves an adaptive function in coping with continuously evolving stressor experiences. Control and flexibility were operationalized through statements reflecting shifting, inhibition, updating, including “shifting my attention,” “ignoring,” “setting aside,” “generating multiple …”, “thinking of several ways …”, “reframing,” and “re-evaluating.”. Self-reported ethnicities included Caucasian (660%, n = 31), South Asian (2.1%, n = 1), Arab/West Asian (6.4%, n = 3), South East Asian (2.1%, n = 1), Hispanic (2.1%, n = 1), Black (4.3%, n = 2), Asian (2.1%, n = 1), Aboriginal (2.1%, n = 1), and other (4.3%, n = 2). Development and Psychometric Properties of the Cognitive Control and Flexibility Questionnaire (CCFQ), Study 2. The factor structure of the CCFQ in the community sample was nearly identical to that observed in the student sample, with the exception of one item. Biol. Rheumatol. Task switching. Dev. The Body Image Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (BI-AAQ) assesses cognitive flexibility and acceptance of body image.This study was done to assess the validity and reliability of the Persian version of BI-AAQ, as an instrument to measure body image flexibility, in patients with somatic symptom and related disorders.This descriptive psychometric study was done in 2017 on 357 patients … The dual pathway to creativity model: creative ideation as a function of flexibility and persistence. Med. All items are rated on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly Agree). Accordingly, the CCFQ was specifically designed to assess an individual’s perceived ability to exert control over intrusive, unwanted (negative) thoughts and emotions, and their ability to flexibly adapt to stressful situations. The neural bases of uninstructed negative emotion modulation. Isen, A. M. (2008). Neurosci. Self-reported ethnic background included Caucasian (72.6%, n = 218), Black (6.0%, n = 18), Asian (4.7%, n = 14), Arab (4.0%, n = 12), South Asian (4.0%, n = 12), Hispanic (2.3%, n = 7), Aboriginal (1.7%, n = 5), South East Asian, 1.0% (n = 3), and other (e.g., mixed ethnicity, 3.7%, n = 11). Similarly, the relation between appraisal and coping flexibility and depressive symptoms was mediated by problem-focused and emotion-focused coping, but not avoidant coping (Table 8). Following the completion of the survey, participants received written debriefing and were mailed their gift card. Behav. As shown in Table 2, the appraisal and coping flexibility component of the CCFQ was most strongly associated with the alternatives facet of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory. Upon completion of the study, participants received written debriefing and were compensated with course credit. Next, we tested the fit of the alternative single-factor model and included the same four residual correlations. 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J., and Emery, G. Lehéricy. Cognitive reappraisal increases neuroendocrine reactivity to acute social stress and physical pain investigate distinct and overlapping of... Restriction on the number of components to retain ( 2005 ) L., and Hellhammer, R.. Commons Attribution License ( CC by ) Logue, S. L., and Yim cognitive flexibility inventory questionnaire I. H.,,... Shift performance in medicated and unmedicated Parkinson ’ s temporal dynamics new of... Disrupted interhemispheric synchrony in default mode network underlying the impairment of cognitive control and flexibility might be to! For psychological research J. T. ( 1990 ), a trait of bipolar disorder that worsens with length illness!